Gender Roles in Cambodia Farm Mechanisation: Potential, Opportunities, and Challenges
Executive Summary
Vegetable production in Cambodia needs to be improved through mechanisation to enhance national food security and economic stability. While women play a significant role in the farming system, their contributions have been overlooked and restricted by gender norms and the limited availability of suitable machinery. The currently available machines on local farms are difficult to operate and require great strength to manage and manoeuvre, which exceeds women’s physical capabilities. This research investigates the gender roles in Cambodia’s vegetable production, underlining women’s challenges and their views on the use of farm machinery. The data show that men perform heavy labour tasks involving machinery, including land preparation, fertiliser application, and crop watering. Women, on the other hand, perform labour-intensive tasks such as weeding and harvesting. The current machinery design, with men as the default users, restricts women’s independence in performing farming tasks, making them more susceptible to abandoning their farms. The existing challenges in vegetable farming, including fluctuating market prices, high input costs, pests and diseases, and limited technical knowledge, disproportionately affect farmers. Gender-inclusive machinery, lower input costs, and extension support are crucial measures to enhance Cambodia’s vegetable production and improve farmers’ livelihood.
Background
Agriculture has been one of the main sectors driving Cambodia’s economy, contributing 16.6% of the country’s GDP in 2024 (World Bank, 2024). Among all commodities, vegetables play a vital role in maintaining a healthy diet by providing essential nutrients for human growth and development and reducing the risk of non-communicable diseases (World Health Organization, 2023). Nonetheless, Cambodian vegetable production is insufficient to meet local demand and still relies heavily on imports from neighbouring countries (Phon & Yamaji, 2016). Local production can only supply up to 60-70% of the nation’s vegetable demand (Khmer Times, 2025). Over-reliance on foreign imported supply could leave a nation vulnerable to geopolitical tensions and reduce national food security. It could also pose risks to local livelihoods when imports outcompete local products. Hence, it is crucial to improve vegetable production in Cambodia to achieve self-sufficiency in supplying vegetables nationwide and beyond.
As with many other economic activities, the tasks involved in vegetable production are gendered. Limited women’s access to crucial resources compared to men is one of the reasons agriculture underperforms (FAO, 2021). While previous studies have focused on structural constraints (Pinn et al., 2020), the role of farm machinery and gender dynamics remains underexplored. Therefore, it is important to understand women’s roles and challenges within the farming system to develop and introduce suitable, gender-inclusive technologies that can ultimately improve farm productivity and efficiency.
1.1 Vegetable Production in Cambodia
According to the Cambodia Agriculture Survey 2020, approximately 57% of Cambodia’s households are engaged in agriculture, of which 90% cultivate crops, with rice as the most exported product (Mao, 2024). Among these agricultural households, 31% reported that agriculture accounted for 40-59% of their income, and another 16% reported that up to 99% of their livelihoods depended on agriculture (National Institute of Statistics, 2022). These numbers show the importance of the agricultural sector in Cambodians' lives. Across the country, the most commonly grown vegetables include green garlic, spinach, Chinese kale, lettuce, water convolvulus, chilli, cucumber, eggplant, ivy gourd, pumpkin, squash, long beans, and cauliflower (National Institute of Statistics, 2023). Although Cambodia has a variety of nutritious vegetables, the production scale of these greens remains relatively small compared to other commodities. Most agricultural farms in general are small and household-based, with approximately 47% of households on less than 1 ha, and the average farm size across the country only 2.1 ha (National Institute of Statistics, 2023).
1.2 Women and Farm Machinery
While machinery has been introduced to farmers to reduce labour and time, and to increase productivity, these machines are usually imported and not customised to be gender-inclusive or to meet local needs. The risks associated with the use of high-capacity machinery are undeniable. Women have reported having difficulties operating farm machinery that requires a great deal of physical strength. Understanding the gender roles of men and women on vegetable farms and taking into account gender-related challenges would improve the design of farm machines and promote more productive, sustainable vegetable farming practices.
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 | Figure 1: Research locality map showing Sa’ang District, Kandal Province, Cambodia
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| 2. Field Activities
2.1 Project-based
With the support from the Crawford Fund Award, I had the opportunity to travel to Cambodia for data collection, in addition to the baseline survey conducted in the ACIAR Project number CROP/2023/129, titled “Integrating the electrification and smart mechanisation of two-wheel tractors with precision agriculture for improved productivity and sustainability.”
This project aims to explore gender dynamics and women’s challenges in vegetable production and to examine women’s perceptions of farm machinery adoption in relation to their financial access and gendered roles in family farming. Sa’ang District, Kandal Province (see Figure 1), was selected for the project location due to its status as one of the country’s most active vegetable production areas.
Twenty farmers from 3 villages in Koh Khel Commune, Sa’ang District, participated in the focus-group discussions (see Table 1). The Ethics Approval for this study was given by the Division of Research and Innovation, Royal University of Agriculture. All participants provided informed consent before taking part in the study.
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Table 1: Project location and number of participants in each village
| Location
| Male
| Female
| Total
| | Koh Khel Village
| 4
| 3
| 7
| | Derm Pring Village
| 3
| 4
| 7
| | Tep Orchun Village
| 4
| 2
| 6
| | Total
| 11
| 9
| 20
| While in Cambodia, I also had the support of the Royal University of Agriculture, especially Dr. Lyhour Hin, my local supervisor, and I was connected to 4 other Masters students, all of whom assisted me in my research.
1.1 Additional Activity
I had the opportunity to facilitate a conceptual design workshop for the electrified 2WT in Sa'ang district with Engineers Without Borders, a local ACIAR project implementer. The objective of this workshop was to gather community feedback on the strengths and shortcomings of the proposed conceptual solution for the electrified 2WT. The workshop was conducted for 3 days in the same district as my research location. Therefore, this was a great opportunity for me not only to support the ACIAR project but also to learn from the local community, which benefited my research.
- Findings
2.1 History and evolution of vegetable farming practices
Sa’ang district has been one of the most intensive vegetable production areas in Cambodia, with a history of at least 5 decades, due to suitable natural waterways (a river and numerous small creeks) that provide adequate water supply and fertile soil. Currently, the most commonly produced vegetables are Chinese kale, spring onion, bok choy, curly wrap bok choy, mustard green, lettuce, cucumber, long bean, pea, cabbage, and cauliflower, all of which are grown for commercial purposes. These vegetables can be grown at a frequency of 2 to 5 crop cycles per year, depending on water availability and land elevation. Low-elevation land is prone to flooding during the rainy season, which limits the production window.
When asked about changes in local vegetable production, the most frequently mentioned change is a sharp decrease in productivity due to soil degradation. Participants recognised that the overuse of chemical inputs and intensive farming has led to compacted soil and loss of fertility. Some farmers purchase fertile soil to replace their degraded topsoil to improve yields, yet this practice is expensive and unsustainable.
2.2 Gendered division of labour and the use of machinery
Each cycle of vegetable farming usually starts with land preparation and ends with harvesting, which requires approximately 60 days. While both men and women engage in vegetable farming tasks, women have limited opportunities to work independently, especially in activities that require hard labour or the use of farm machinery. Table 2 breaks down labour requirements and gendered divisions in farming tasks.
Table 2: Machinery use, labour source, and farming tasks division among men and women in 1 production cycle
| Stage
| Farming activity
| Equipment/machinery
| Gender responsible
| Labour source
| | Land preparation
| Ploughing
| 4-wheel tractor
| Men
| Hire (tractor + driver)
| | Tilling
| Tiller
| Men
| Hire (tiller + labourer)
| | Bed raising
| 4-wheel tractor
| Men
| Hire (tractor + driver)
| | Mulching
| By hand
| Both men and women
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Planting
| Seeding
| By hand (using bags to carry the seed)
| Both men and women
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Crop maintenance
| Spraying (liquid fertilizer, pesticide, and herbicide)
| Sprayer (motorised spraying tank)
| Men
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Solid fertilizer broadcasting
| By hand (using bags to carry the solid fertilizer)
| Men
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Watering
| Motorised water pump
| Both men and women
| Farm owner
| | Remove dense baby vegetable
| By hand (using knives)
| Women
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Weeding
| By hand (using knives)
| Women
| Farm owner / labourer
| | Harvesting
| Harvesting
| By hand (using knives)
| Both men and women
| Farm owner / labourer
| In crop watering, for instance, only a small number of women participate in this activity because of the difficulty in operating the motorised water pump. They stated that starting the machine requires great strength and a strong grip to start the pull motor, which is beyond their capacity, and that it would pose risk of injury if they are not strong enough. Other farm machines, such as 2WT, 4WT, tiller, and motorised spraying tank, are not suitable for women. Even men farmers claim that these farm machines are difficult to operate, especially those in their 50s and above, so they usually hire labourers to operate the tractors or rent tractors from a service provider that includes a driver. When asked to rate the difficulty of each farm machine, all farmers agreed that 2WT and 4WT are the most difficult to operate, followed by the motorised spray tank and then the water pump (see Table 3).
Table 3: Vegetable farm machines difficulty rating by both men and women farmers
| Farm machine
| Difficulty rating (5 = extremely difficult, 3 = Moderately difficult, 1 = Not difficult at all))
| | 4-wheel tractor
| 5
| | 2-wheel tractor
| 5
| | Tiller
| 4.7
| | Motorised spraying tank
| 4.7
| | Motorised water pump
| 3.7
| Women are mainly involved in hand-operated farming tasks that are tedious and time-consuming. They emphasised that these tasks caused them physical distress, such as back and knee pain, sore legs and arms, due to working in the heat and high humidity for prolonged periods.
The existing division of farming tasks reveals unequal freedom of choice between men and women. Men carry out tasks they deem necessary and choose not to perform tasks that women can perform, even though they are capable. However, this is not the case for women. Women tend to perform tasks they are capable of and refrain from activities that involve heavy labour or the use of machinery. While farm machines are designed to ease farm labour, they are designed with men as the default users, which ultimately restricts women’s independence in farming tasks.
In local communities, women are not encouraged to use heavy machinery. From men’s perspectives, they are concerned that women’s health can be negatively impacted by overly strenuous tasks. Women farm owners who do not have any male family members to help with the machinery usually hire services from local providers. However, those who lack the financial capacity to do so face a significant challenge, as they cannot get help and often resort to abandoning farming altogether. They usually sell their farmland and start a different income-generating activity.
2.3 Decision-making dynamics in the household
Financial management in the family is usually handled by women in the household. They are responsible for managing family income, daily expenses, and savings. Although men lead agricultural activities, decisions about purchasing inputs, farm tools, or machines usually involve both husband and wife. Likewise, important decisions, such as applying for a formal or informal loan, usually involve multiple discussions among adult family members, regardless of gender.
Figure 2 shows the association between vegetable farming tasks and decision-making roles within farmers’ households. This data indicates clear gender differences in the allocation of farming tasks. Activities such as spraying agricultural inputs (fertiliser, herbicides, pesticides) and watering are positioned close to the Man category, indicating men’s predominant performance in these tasks. On the contrary, selling, sales money control, and other labour-intensive tasks such as harvesting and weeding are positioned close to the Woman category, indicating stronger involvement from women. The decision-making responsibility, which includes land use, machinery use, income use, and general financial decisions, is located close to the Joint category, suggesting that these decisions are made jointly by both male and female family members. However, land preparation is located far from either the Man, the Woman, or the Joint category. Farmers reported that these land preparation activities require the use of machinery and, therefore, are not done by farm owners but by the service providers they hire.
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|  | Figure 2: Correspondent Analysis (CA) Biplot illustrating the tasks and decisions in vegetable farming performed by men and women
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3.4 Challenges in vegetable farming
Vegetable farmers are increasingly facing challenges ranging from market prices and input costs to technical knowledge and environmental issues. Fluctuating vegetable market prices are the most significant of these challenges. Farmers emphasised that this is the most severe and persistent issue, leading to the greatest loss of income.
Before starting the next farming cycle, they decide which crop to plant based on current demand and rising market prices. However, when harvesting time arrives, the price of that specific vegetable drops drastically. In some cases, farmers have no choice but to leave their produce to rot in the field because the income they could earn would not be enough to cover the costs of harvesting labour and transportation. These losses lead to a chain of problems. When farm crops yield low profitability, aspirations such as expanding farmland, adopting new practices, or investing in new farm technology are unattainable.
The continuous rise in agricultural input prices is another significant concern for farmers, especially given the degradation of soil resulting from intensive farming and excessive use of chemical inputs. Even though these chemical inputs worsen soil conditions, farmers claim they have no option but to keep increasing input volumes, regardless of rising costs, if they want to maintain the quality and quantity of their yields.
Challenges include pests, diseases, flooding during the rainy season, water scarcity during the dry season, and health risks from pesticide and herbicide use, all of which must be addressed. The lack of technical knowledge in sustainable agriculture and ecosystem management leads to unsustainable practices, as evidenced by the increase in pests and diseases despite intensive use of chemical treatments. Extension services and training are scarce and are commonly attended only by men, which contributes to the disproportionate gender involvement in farming.
Although men and women face the same challenges as vegetable farmers, women tend to be more affected by these circumstances. Especially when farming provides low income, women encounter greater constraints because it becomes more difficult for them to manage the family’s daily expenses i.e. food, children’s education, and participation in social events.
3.5 Farmer aspirations and expectations
Many farmers aspire to produce high-quality or organic vegetables that can be sold or exported at a premium price. Additionally, they are expected to improve farm productivity and reduce labour intensity in vegetable farming by using advanced technologies. Women farmers in particular express hope and optimism that modern farm machinery will be fabricated to ease their workload and reduce their dependency on men’s labour. Modern farm mechanisation and technology will also attract youths to engage more in agriculture (Agbugba, 2023).
Farmers also have high hopes that the nation will produce its own high-quality, cost-effective agricultural inputs, including seeds, fertiliser, herbicides, and pesticides, which will be a major contribution to reducing input costs and dependency on imported products. They could then invest in more advanced farm technologies, such as drones and greenhouses.
3.6 Needed support and suggestions
Increasing profitability is the top priority, and farmers require government support. It could be achieved by increasing farm productivity, reducing input costs, and maintaining a stable, profitable market for vegetable farmers. Currently, there is a lack of technical support and extension services for farmers, resulting in limited risk management; for example, the increased pest and disease issues they usually face during the rainy season. They also want to learn about sustainable farm practices and the safe use of agricultural inputs. These extension services should be made available to all farmers, with consideration of the timing and location of the training, to ensure that they are accessible to women farmers.
There is demand for forming agricultural cooperatives, or farmers’ groups, to avoid overproduction of the same vegetable or to produce a vegetable under best practice standards that can be sold at a higher price. They think that being in a formal group, with government support, would help them reduce risks through contract farming. Partnerships with private companies that promote local vegetable products would help increase market value. Farmers also hope that the government will support them with soil quality testing, so they can better understand their soil and protect its quality for a more sustainable future.
4. Acknowledgement
This research was made possible through the financial support of the Crawford Fund. I extend my heartfelt thanks to Prof. Daniel Tan and Dr. Rebecca Cross, who have supervised and guided me throughout the whole project. My sincere appreciation to Dr. Lyhour Hin for providing guidance and support, especially during my stay in Cambodia. I would like to extend my appreciation to my fellow students from the Royal University of Agriculture, whose assistance and cooperation were invaluable throughout this research. I am grateful for the support and opportunity to learn from Engineers Without Borders in Cambodia.
Media / Photos
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|  | With EWB team, RUA student and farmers during farm visit to collect field data and farm dimensions
| |  | Meeting with the district officer before conducting the workshop
| |  | Dr. Hin and fellow RUA students in front of the Faculty of Agricultural Bioengineering
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References
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FAO. (2021). Gender Equality Deep-Dive for Cambodia. https://cambodia.un.org/sites/default/files/2022-03/Gender%20Deep%20Dive%20-%20CCA%20Cambodia_V6_010322_LQ.pdf
Khmer Times. (2025, November 27). New MAFF measures to cut reliance on imported vegetables, official says - Khmer Times. Khmer Times - Insight into Cambodia. https://www.khmertimeskh.com/501797394/new-maff-measures-to-cut-reliance-on-imported-vegetables-official-says/
Mao, S. (2024). Cambodia Exports 6.59 Million Tonnes of Milled Rice in 10 Years. Kiripost. https://kiripost.com/stories/cambodia-exports-659-million-tonnes-of-milled-rice-in-10-years
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National Institute of Statistics. (2022). Cambodia Agriculture Survey 2020 (CAS2020) Final Report.
Phon, D., & Yamaji, E. (2016). Impact of Smallholder Agricultural Cooperatives on Market Participation of Vegetable Farmers in Cambodia: A Case Study of Svay Rieng Agro-Products Cooperative. In IJERD -International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (pp. 7–8).
Pinn, T., Reach, S., Buntong, B., & Acedo, A. (2020). Vegetable Farming Practices in Cambodia: Case study of Small-scale Vegetable Farmers in Kandal, Kampong Chhnang and Battambang Provinces. In IJERD -International Journal of Environmental and Rural Development (pp. 11–12).
World Bank. (2024). Agriculture, forestry, and fishing, value added (% of GDP) - Cambodia | Data. Data.worldbank.org. https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NV.AGR.TOTL.ZS?locations=KH
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